In this case, the source of the error may not be the self-assessment of one's skills, but an overly positive assessment of the skills of others. But some theorists do not restrict it to the bias of people with low skill, also discussing the reverse effect, i.e., the tendency of highly skilled people to underestimate their abilities relative to the abilities of others. The Dunning–Kruger effect is usually defined specifically for the self-assessments of people with a low level of competence. to see themselves as more skilled than they are. The systematic error concerns their tendency to greatly overestimate their competence, i.e. In the case of the Dunning–Kruger effect, this applies mainly to people with low skill in a specific area trying to evaluate their competence within this area. as a systematic tendency to engage in erroneous forms of thinking and judging. This is often seen as a cognitive bias, i.e. The Dunning–Kruger effect is defined as the tendency of people with low ability in a specific area to give overly positive assessments of this ability. In some cases, the associated overconfidence may have positive side effects, like increasing motivation and energy. It may also inhibit the affected from addressing their shortcomings to improve themselves. Inaccurate self-assessment can lead people to make bad decisions, such as choosing a career for which they are unfit or engaging in dangerous behavior. The Dunning–Kruger effect has been described as relevant for various practical matters, but disagreements exist about the magnitude of its influence. Another model sees lack of incentive to give accurate self-assessments as the source of error. Another explanation claims that self-assessment is more difficult and error-prone for low performers because many of them have very similar skill levels. The rational model holds that overly positive prior beliefs about one's skills are the source of false self-assessment. It combines the statistical effect known as regression toward the mean with the cognitive bias known as the better-than-average effect. The statistical model explains the empirical findings based on two effects. Various researchers have criticized the metacognitive model and proposed alternative explanations. Some researchers include the metacognitive component as part of the definition of the Dunning–Kruger effect and not just as an explanation distinct from it. This has also been termed the "dual-burden account" since the lack of skill is paired with the ignorance of this deficiency. They tend to overrate themselves because they do not see the qualitative difference between their performances and the performances of others. This interpretation is based on the idea that poor performers have not yet acquired the ability to distinguish between good and bad performances. The original model by Dunning and Kruger holds that a lack of metacognitive abilities is responsible. Many models have been suggested to explain the Dunning-Kruger effect's underlying causes. They include skills from fields such as business, politics, medicine, driving, aviation, spatial memory, examinations in school, and literacy. Since then other studies have been conducted across a wide range of tasks. It focused on logical reasoning, grammar, and social skills. The initial study was published by David Dunning and Justin Kruger in 1999. The Dunning–Kruger effect appears in both cases, but is more pronounced in relative terms the bottom quartile of performers tend to see themselves as being part of the top two quartiles. This can happen in either relative or absolute terms, i.e., in comparison with one's peer group as the percentage of peers outperformed or in comparison with objective standards as the number of questions answered correctly. This subjective assessment is then compared with how well they actually performed. For example, the participants in a study may be asked to complete a quiz and then estimate how well they performed. The Dunning–Kruger effect is usually measured by comparing self-assessment with a measure of objective performance. In popular culture, the Dunning–Kruger effect is often misunderstood as a claim about general overconfidence of people with low intelligence instead of specific overconfidence of people unskilled at a particular task. Some researchers also include the opposite effect for high performers: their tendency to underestimate their skills. The Dunning–Kruger effect is a cognitive bias whereby people with low ability, expertise, or experience regarding a type of task or area of knowledge tend to overestimate their ability or knowledge.
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